3. Interpretation of results (Helberg 1)

The first pitfalls discussed are sources of bias which involve the conditions/circumstances that affect the external validity of the results. The sources of bias included in the paper are representative sampling and statistical assumptions. Representative sampling is abused when the target population of the study is not a true representative sample (Helberg 2). This can escalate into a big problem when studying people because it is so difficult to have access to the entire population. The researcher can then only hope that the gr

The final categories of statistical abuses are problems with interpretations of results. The author states that in order to avoid confusion over significance the researcher needs to cast results in terms of effect sizes and to do this the size of the effect must be presented in terms that make quantitative sense.

It is suggested that in order to avoid these pitfalls the statistician needs to understand the assumptions of the statistical procedures and be sure they are satisfied.

The author also states that multiple comparisons can be a problem if combinations of factors are not done in a precise manner. Helberg suggests that if there must be many tests that the researcher should try to replicate or use cross-validation to verify the results. The paper covers measurement error and the concepts of reliability and validity. It is important Helberg explains that a measure give similar results if the units being measured are similar (reliability) (Helberg 9). In order to avoid measurement errors Helberg suggests using the best measurement tools available and if the m

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