In understanding the transition to modernity, Durkheim, like Marx, took a holistic approach and argued that society cannot be reduced to individuals…'society' was, argued Durkheim, a phenomenon in its own right. It did not depend upon the intentions and motivations of individuals for its continued existence. In his aim to establish sociological autonomy, to establish Sociology as a discipline sui generis, Durkheim sees society as more than just the individuals who constitute that society, believing in the ability to explain individual action in terms of society as a whole.

Thus, in outlining the evolution of social phenomena, Durkheim saw a fundamental difference between pre-industrial and indu

However, in creating this 'uniquely sociological' form of analysis, Durkheim has been criticised by writers such as Lukes, who believe that in examining suicide, it should be seen that there is a interlinking relationship between societal and individual factors. Other writers suggest that Durkheim is also incorrect in his attempts to use information on groups of people to make assumptions about the rest of the society. Further, it has been argued that Durkheim failed to realise that anomie can itself be seen as a norm, rather than a state of normlessness. His model of norms was that of external and constraining rules curbing the individual’s limitless desires. He did not picture these desires as themselves resulting from social or cultural influences, or envisage that there could be internally accepted norms, to which men willingly conform, with results that are socially anarchic and psychologically harmful.

In other words anomie occurs as the disjunction of means and goals. The true conformist will be the person who has access to both the legitimate means and the proved goals. However, in a celebrated typology of modes of individual adaptations to anomie, Merton also discusses innovation (keeping goals, but rejecting legitimate means, as in theft): retreatism (rejecting or withdrawing from goals and means, as in drug use): ritualism(keeping to legitimate means becomes a goal in itself, as in the case of slavish bureaucrat): and finally, rebellion (rejecting both means and goals, and substituting new ones as in political radicalism).

As reformulated by Merton, anomie becomes a concept used in the analysis of deviance. In his classic essay on 'Social Structure and Anomie' he stressed that in most Western societies (he particularly focused on American society), it is generally taken for granted that everyone must succeed in material wealth. Hard work and determination should be the means by which this success is achieved. However, some individuals do not have access to or opportunities for this progress and there is no consensus on the means by which this is obtained, and so there exists extreme pressure to succeed no matter what. The conflict between means and success leads to deviant behaviour and criminal activities and so these are seen as inherent in prosperity and happiness.

strial societies. In the former there is relatively little social differentiation: the division of labour is comparatively unspecialised. Social solidarity in pre-industrial societies is based on similarities between individual members - they share the same beliefs and values and, to a large degree, the same roles. This uniformity binds members of society together in a close-knit communal life. Durkheim refers to unity based on resemblance as 'mechanical solidarity'. Individuals feel moral obligation to others because others are like themselves. Society is bui

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