Journal of Change Management; London; Aug 2002; Anthony J Mento; Raymond M Jones; Walter Dirndorfer;

Three models have stood as exemplars in the change management literature. The first model is Kotter's (1995) eight-step model for transforming organisations. Kotter's model was developed after a study of over 100 organisations varying in size and industry type. After learning that the majority of major change efforts failed, Kotter couched his model as a way of avoiding major errors in the change process. It is best viewed as a vision for the change process. It calls attention to the key phases in the change process. Two key lessons learned from the model are that the change process goes through a series of phases, each lasting a considerable amount of time, and that critical mistakes in any of the phases can have a devastating impact on the momentum of the change process. Kotter's model is aimed at the strategic level of the change management process.

Jick (1991a) developed a tactical level model to guide the implementation of major organisational change. His ten-step approach serves as a blueprint for organisations embarking on

All 12 steps are not to be regarded only sequentially, but also as an integrated, iterative process to enable change. Business and engineering are about growing, changing, adjusting and improving the accepted norms and procedures today to make the future brighter. Engineering is often referred to as turning dreams into reality. But one fails to realise that miracles often do not occur overnight and that there is actually a progression that must be painfully followed. The thought for the 21st century change leaders is that they must be astute decision makers and marketers, trusted innovators, agents of change, preachers of difficulties, master integrators, enterprise enablers, technology stewards and knowledge handlers. They will need first-rate managerial, technical, interpersonal and scientific skills. Complex systems and issues will need to be embraced and they must reach the decisions about the amounts of time, money, people, knowledge and technology they are willing to commit to meet what should be a common end goal that was well communicated and accepted all around the company. Hopefully, the authors' change model will provide some much-needed guidance along these lines and will help to ensure that their voyage will be successful.

In his ten-step tactical model for implementing change, Jick (1991a) makes the observation that, in large-scale change, the leader plays a critical role in creating the corporate vision. The leader both inspires the employees to embrace the vision, and crafts an organisational structure that consistently rewards people who focus their efforts on pursuing the vision. In step 5 of the model, which deals with supporting a strong leader role, Jick takes the view similar to the one learned in the change process at AMC. A change leader team can better provide the necessary leadership role than can a single individual. A team can be carefully assembled to maximise the appropriate skill sets. Billington's (1997) review of the team literature found that there are three essentials of an effective team: Commitment, competence and a common purpose. Commitment refers to the achievement of specific performance goals. Core competencies of team members are a critical determinant of how effective a team can be. The best teams invest the time and the effort to explore, shape and agree on their purpose that is to be internalised both individually and collectively. The team must be self-energising and self-motivating in believing they are the agents of change. Diversity of skills and opinions makes a team strong as long as all share the vision. (Katzenbach and Smith, 1993).

Step 10: Constantly and strategically communicate the change

It has been observed that it does not matter whether the change is perceived as being a positive or a negative. Resistance is generated because the status quo will be affected. People are comfortable with knowns. The introduction of a change, even for the better, is an unknown. It adds stress to people. Specific strategies for dealing with resistance as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each approach can be found in Kotter and Schlesinger (1979). They advocate the use of focus groups, surveys and suggestions to bring the issues of resistance to the surface. Resistance to change efforts is directly related to how the situation is framed (Gabarro and Kotter, 1993). Speaking with the audience most affected by the change gives immediate feedback and allows the target to express their FOR. Resistance is a natural emotion that must be dealt with and not avoided. If one can look at the positive aspects of resistance to change, by locating its source and motives, it can open further possibilities for realising change. Hultman (1979) states: `Without resistance to change, we are skeptical of real change occurring. Without real questioning, skepticism, and even outright resistance, it is unlikely that the organisation will successfully move on to the productive stage of learni

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