Great schism- France and other countries in French political orbit recognized Clement as the pope while the rest of Europe said Urban was. International monastic orders divided into Roman Avignonese camps. Each camp had its own cardinal who was named after an Italian or French successor. It ended in 1417 by the council of Constance.

100 yrs.- conflicts between Britain and France that lasted from 1337-1453. The French had expanded their rule and hoped to expel the English. There was also an economic interest in woolen trade w/Flanders. Later the war involved a succession dispute over the French crown itself. The war strengthened the powers of the French crown. Major problem was that British territory was held by the English kings.

Machiavelli- his writings reflect the condition of Italy during his time. In 1498 Mach

Erasmus- expert in handling greek and latin. Translated the bible into latin. Criticized the church and wrote a book about it.

Montesquieu-(1689-1755). He inherited both estate and a position as magistrate in the Parlement, or law court, of Bordeaux. His the Spirit of Laws was the most influential work of the englighment. Montesquieu asked about the structures that shaped law. How different environments, histories, and religious traditions combined to create such a variety of governmental institutions. A republic was governed by the many in his view either an elite aristocracy or the people. He admired the british system and its separate and balanced powers, which garunteed liberty in the sense of freedom from the absolute power of any single governing individual or group.

Martin Luther- was a German monk of the H.R.E. he was a priest who maintained his P.H.D. in biblical works and was a teacher of theology at Witten B. University. Luther broke w/Rome b/c of his doctrine of justification by the faith that German masses followed him in a surge of religious nationalism and that princes were moved to institute Lutheranism. In Luther’s theology he didn’t believe that humans could be saved in the performance of good works. Humans should have faith in God’s grace. Believe in the bible not the church. Luther maintained that the pope and all clerics were fallible men and the highest authority is the truth of the scripture. Luther was successful b/c the printing press became an advantage. His personality, he is a highly productive person and believes everything that he does is right. Earns support from the Duke of Saxony.

Peter the Great- (1689-1725) returned to Russia determined to remodel his countries institutions along the western lines. He had scandalized nobility and clergy by traveling to Holland and England o recruit highly skilled workers and to study the craft of shipbuilding. He financed his army by increasing taxes and fostered growth of iron and munition industries. He replaced the Duma w/ a rubber stamp senate and appointed a procurator to manage the affairs of the Russian Orthodox church. He went to war w/ Sweden Charles XII who devoted most of his reign to campaigns in the field against the Danes, Poles, and Russian. He moved the Russian capital from Moscow to the Gulf of Finland. He develops St. Petersburg and makes it a national capital.

Aug 4- French have become very impatient . there has been a long term delay in the organization of the Estates gen. and peasants in both Paris and the provinces. Have become very discontent. Due 2 the sluggish mov’t of the representatives to enact reforms after the estates gen had been transformed into the National Assembly, series of peasant uprisings began. To reassure the peasants and end any upcoming up rises, representatives of each estate compromised w/1 another in conceding priviledges of the nobility of clergy.

Some topics in this essay:
Newton1642-1727 English, Napoleon Code-, Glorious Revolution-, Price Revolution-, Germany Continental, Public Safety, , Rights Woman, Paul III, Rome Humanism-, nobility clergy, russian capital moscow, committee public safety, war w/, rural wkrs, glorious american, american revolution, public safety, glorious american revolution, committee public, die w/in, church council, justification glorious american, bill rights,