Female circumcision is practiced in many forms. Type I, clitoridectomy, is the removal of the clitoral hood with or without removal of all or part of the clitoris. Type II, excision, is the removal of the clitoris together with part or all of the labia minora. Type III, infibulation, is the removal of part or all the external genitalia (clitoris, labia minora and labia majora) and stitching or narrowing of the vaginal opening, leaving a very small opening, about the size of a match stick, to allow for flow of urine and menstrual fluid.

Depending on the country and specific group involved, a variety of i

Numerous other projects have been mounted to eliminate female circumcision, although none have documented success.

In the female circumcision context, the West argues that the practice reinforces the devaluation of women in the social structure in Africa. “The West asserts that female circumcision is practiced in Africa to prove a man’s masculinity and virility by achieving the difficult act of penetrating a circumcised women (Perry, 1998).” In communities where a person’s place in society is determined by lineage traced through fathers, female circumcision reduces the uncertainty surrounding paternity by discouraging or preventing women’s sexual activity outside of marriage. Although the societies that practice circumcision vary in many ways, most girls receive little education and are valued primarily for their future role as sources of labor and producers of children. “In some communities, the prospective husband’s family pay a bride price to the family of the bride, giving his family the right to her labor and her children; she herself has no right to or control over either (Perry, 1998).”

A more effective approach, increasingly practiced in rural communities in Kenya and Uganda, offers hope for eliminating female circumcision. The Kenya approach consists of an alternative rite, known as “ntanira na mugambo” or “circumcision through words.” It includes a week-long program of counseling, training, and informing young women, concluded by a day designated as the “coming of age day,” when members of the community join for a celebration with music, dances and feasting (Chelala, 1998). “Since it was initiated in August 1996, approximately 300 women have undergone this rite (Chelala, 1998).”

A variety of justifications are given in favor of continuation of the practice. “Including preservation of virginity before marriage, fidelity after marriage, enhancement of the husband’s sexual pleasure, enhancement of fertility, prevention of infant and child mortality, cleanliness and religious requirements, but tradition is by far the most common (Ahmad, 2000).” Many of the mentioned justifications have little scientific support.

-Alternative rituals; where mother and daughters would participate in a six-day training session that included information on the consequences of female circumcision and how to defend the decision not to be cut. The session culminated in a coming-of-age celebration planned by the community, excluding circumcision but including gifts and special T-shirts for the initiates, skits, and books of wisdom prepared by the parents of each girl (Chelala, 1998).

In addition to the Islamic religion, other African religious groups practice female circumcision. Scholars argue the story which involves Abraham, Sarah, and Hagar, explains the origin of female circumcision according to Christianity. According to the story, Sarah forces Abraham to circumcise Egyptian born Hagar. God commands Abraham and Sarah to circumcise themselves because of their actions. Christians that adhere to female circumcision interpret this story as God’s acceptance of the practice (Chessler, 1997). However, “the Bible, like the Qur’an does not specifically mention female circumcision (Chessler, 1997).” Some Christian groups promote traditional customs and support female circumcision as a link to Africa’s past.

Female circumcision is currently practiced in at least 28 countries stretching across the center of Africa north of the equator (Perry, 1998). Female circumcision is not generally found in southern Africa or in the Arabic-speaking nations of North Africa, with the exception of Egypt. Female circumcision occurs among Muslims, Christians, and Islam\'s, although no religion requires it.

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