(The attempts by Catholic monarchs to re-establish European religious unity and by both Catholic and Protestant monarchs to establish strong centralized states led to many wars among the European states. Spain’s attempt to keep religious and political unity within her empire led to a long war in the Netherlands, a war that pulled England over to the side of the Protestant Dutch. There was bitter civil war in France, which finally ended with the reign of Henry of Navarre and the Edict of Nantes in 1598. The Thirty Years War in Germany (1618-1648) had both religious and political roots, and left that area in political and economic ruins.

“Une foi, un loi, un roi.”(one faith, one law, one king ). This traditional saying gives some indication of how the state, religion, and society were all bound up in people’s mind and experience. There was no distinction between public and private, between civic and personal. Religion had formed the basis for social consensus in Europe for a millennium. Since Clovis, the French monarchy in particular had closely tied itself to the church and the church sanctif

Sunday morning, a troop of soldiers came to Coligny’s door. They killed the guard at the door and rushed through the house. Coligny was stabbed and thrown out the window to the pavement below. Reputedly the Duc de Guise mocked the body, kicking him in the face and announcing that this was the king’s will. Rumors ran thick and fast, somehow the militia and the general population went on a rampage, believing themselves to be fully sanctioned by the king and the church. Catholics identified themselves with white crosses on their hats, and went around butchering their neighbors. The neighborhood militias played a significant role in the slaughter. The killing went on for three days or so, with the city councilors and even the king not able to bring the whole thing under control. There are numerous tales of atrocities, some of courage and heroism. Historians will never know what exactly happened and why.

In the spring of 1594, Henri the Fourth entered Paris without firing a shot, and the Spanish garrison walked out. It wasn’t over yet but Henri was in possession of his capital. He began a vigorous campaign of winning over support of moderate Catholics with a combination of charm, money, and promises. A great amount of money was spent guaranteeing nobles pensions and positions in exchange for the support, and a great deal of money was given to the towns in exchange for their support. In the end Henri considered it a bargain compared to the costs of war.

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