In his first paragraph, Leibniz talks about monads. He describes monads as simple substances or "without parts." Here he uses reason to analyze the universe. He describes that in analyzing the universe, we reach a level where we can’t cut or divide it anymore. This is the point at which it stops. He calls this the atomic theory: although we don’t see atoms, we know they exist through reason, and because there are compounds, there must be simple substances that make them up. These are monads, and these monads are real atoms of nature, or elements of things. These substances don’t have to have a body because substance isn’t a body. We cannot create or destroy them which leads to the idea of God.

God could create or destroy them because God could create or destroy anything. The universe is the aggregation of monads. Monads have no windows. They are unrel

Perception is the multiplicity in a unit. Apperception is the consciousness or awareness. Perception is distinguished from consciousness because it treats perceptions of which we are not consciously aware of as nonexistent. Each monad has perception according to the best possible plan. Things must be in a necessary substance and the substance is God. This substance is sufficient reason, there is only one God, and this God is sufficient. God must exist if He is possible. His possibility is sufficient of itself. There is nothing to prevent God from existing, and nothing to prevent his being from being possible so he exists. God creates unrelated atomic units and fits them together in creation. There must be a sufficient reason even if we don’t understand it. Each simple substance has relations which express all others and each monad is a living mirror of the whole universe, in other words, in every monad the whole universe is reflected. Every monad has perception and there are various levels of perception; therefore, at some or other level, every monad is conscious of every other monad. And this is, according to the knowledge in Leibniz, the best possible world.

Knowledge in Berkeley says that philosophers use words that have no meaning to them, for example abstract ideas. Berkeley starts his philosophy by criticizing Lock’s definition of abstract ideas. Berkeley believes that we can imagine a tree without looking at a tree and it makes sense. The mind has the ability to focus on a universal no

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