As the theoretical and professional foundations of multicultural counseling have progressed, a natural evolution has been the development of ethical standards to help regulate the practice of multicultural counseling. Ibrahim and Arredondo (1986) authored a proposal to develop specific ethical standards regarding multicultural counseling in the areas of education, research, assessment, and practice. LaFromboise and Foster (1989) also discussed this by bringing attention to other issues related to ethics in multicultural counseling that involved participants in research and right to treatment.

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With the understanding that this model is social in nature, the role of culture would intertwine nicely in this theory. Unfortunately, culture is only vaguely mentioned, and apparently no attempt has been made to deal with this variable more thoroughly in this model.

Advocates for a virtue ethics model, Jordan and Meara (1995) relied on the personal characteristics and wisdom of the professionals making an ethical decision, instead of the ethical principles involved. Proponents of this model claim that it is very difficult to reach an agreement on which principle should prevail over another in a particular situation. Instead, they state that the primary factor in arriving at a decision is the professionals' moral or personal beliefs. Central virtues mentioned under this model include integrity, prudence, discretion, perseverance, courage, benevolence, humility, and hope. This approach has not been formulated into a format with specific steps, and, again, cultural analyses or implications have not been included in this model.

evision of the ethical standards, the American Counseling Association (ACA) included specific excerpts requiring counselors to respect diversity, avoid discrimination, and demonstrate cultural sensitivity when engaging in direct client services, research, education, testing, computer applications, public communications, and relationships with employers and employees (ACA, 1995). Within the section on professional competence, it requires them to show a commitment to gain knowledge, awareness, and skills related to serving all different types of clients.

Cottone (2001) proposed a social constructivism model that crosses both the psychological and systemic-relational paradigms of mental health services. It is based on Maturana's (1970/1980) biology of cognition theory, which states that what is real evolves through personal interaction and agreement as to what is fact. The core structure of this model entails the notion that decisions are externally influenced. Basically, decisions are made with interactions involving one or more individuals, which means that decisions are not compelled internally but socially. Central decision-making strategies used under this model include negotiating, consensus seeking, and arbitrating.

However, these ethical models offered a number of conceptual and procedural strengths that could make them compatible with a multicultural perspective in ethical dilemma resolution. The Rational Model involves a seven-step linear method that gives counselors specific critical evaluative tools for ethical reasoning; the Virtue Ethics Model implies a focus on the moral qualities or virtues of counselors who can then transform these qualities into actions that help solve a dilemma; the Social Constructivist Model is a nonlinear model that allows counselors to engage in an ongoing social interaction conducive to discrepancy reduction; the Collaborative Model includes a four-step linear sequence that aims at establishing collaboration between the parties in conflict; and the Integrative Model combines both principle and virtue ethics philosophies as well as an analysis of the institutional and societal context that affects the ethical dilemma and the stakeholders involved.

Some topics in this essay:
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