... state/output. To achieve this, complex systems must have a performance criteria (Downing, 2002), a measurement input of this criteria and then mechanisms to effect change in performance. Campbell (1993) describes biological systems as utilising nerve cells called receptors as input devices, and nerve cells called effectors as output devices. Complex cognitive systems within the brain act as ... the molecular level steady state of a structure is the desired output. In nature, the process which keeps a living creature at its steady state (desired output) is called homeostasis (Campbell, 199...

• Word Count: 908
• Approx Pages: 4
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... laws. He suggests that the morphology and structure of an organism similarly constitutes boundary conditions that are not required by biochemical laws but are compatible with such laws.[xxxv] Donald Campbell gives a careful analysis of the top-down causation through which processes at lower levels are constrained by relationships at higher levels.[xxxvi] Niles Eldredge and Stanley Salthe speak of an ... ...

• Word Count: 7861
• Approx Pages: 31
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... of ichthyology, and openly opposed Darwin through popular media in America instead of through scientific journals. Other people who attempted to discredit Darwin and will be covered include George Douglas Campbell, Richard Owen, and Fleeming Jenkin. As the research progresses, other names may be added as well. An important characteristic of scientific discovery is the attempt by the scientific community to ... ...

• Word Count: 471
• Approx Pages: 2
• Grade Level: Undergraduate