The Wicked Problems of British Cities

             1977-1979.
             Structural Approach - Contained in White Paper 1977 Policy for the Inner Cities identified four key problems: 1) economic decline.
             2) physical decline.
             3) concentration of poverty.
             4) racial discrimination.
             Assumed problem of urban decline lay in `societal forces', those experiencing it `victims'.
             White Paper and Inner Urban Areas Act, 1978. Attempted to develop an integrated approach, the formation of partnerships, new role for private sector and reference made to voluntary and community sectors. These partnerships were attempts to create vertical and horizontal coordination within the state. Still small area-based.
             1979-1991.
             Mixture of Structural and Social pathology Approaches. Urban problems seen as product of:.
             a) too much state intervention;.
             b) individual and group dependency;.
             c) restriction of free market.
             a) rollback state;.
             b) encourage self help;.
             c) free-up the market. Produced property-led urban regeneration - physical renewal in profitable locations. State- private partnerships (e.g. UDCs). Multiplicity of initiatives lacking coordination. Emphasis on better management of programmes. Local government marginalised as part of the problem.
             1991-1997.
             Retained elements of previous period but recognised failings, particularly fact that deprived (socially excluded) communities were largely by-passed by the market. Key problems: how to ensure excluded communities benefit from policies; incoherence of ABIs and need to take on board governance implications. .
             Development of new multi-sectoral partnerships (public, private, voluntary and community sectors). First in City Challenge, then SRB. .
             1997-2006.
             Built on previous analysis but post-1997 greater emphasis on focussing on the `worst' areas -seen as being by-passed by economic growth. In particular an emphasis on the need to address causes of worklessness and `social disorganisation. Issue of how to promote `urban competitiveness' in a global economy has emerged as a problem/opportunity.