Some wanted to modernise, to copy the Western powers and become strong enough to stand up to them. This line of thinking found expression in the Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-94), the 100 Days Reform (1898) and the post-1901 reforms. Others in China argued that the country's salvation lay in maintaining traditional ways and resisting Westernisation. This line of thinking was most strongly supported by the Empress Dowager Cixi and found justification in the failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement and the 100 Days Reform. .
Weakness in dealing with the West, defeat in war and unequal treaties all added to the feeling that the Manchus had lost 'the mandate of heaven' - the Confucian idea that an emperor rules and should only be obeyed if the gods favour him. .
China also had its internal problems. Its population was exploding and the pressure on land meant that famine was common. This, plus the lack of land reform and frequent natural disasters made life at best precarious and at worst desperate for most Chinese peasants. Rebellions thus became common, the most notable of these being the Taiping Rebellion of 1847-64. .
By the late nineteenth century, foreign powers had massively increased their presence and control in China. They controlled China's tariffs, had carved out many territorial concessions, had forced extraterritoriality on China and had taken control of its vassal states. In 1894-5 even Japan joined in the humiliation of China when it defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War. .
Anti-foreign feeling had always existed in China and frequently reached the levels of xenophobia. Around 1900 this xenophobia was most clearly manifested in the Boxer Movement. This strong anti-Western feeling was the result not only of repeated military humiliation but also of widespread missionary activity. In 1900 the Boxers attacked the Western powers and it was many weeks before the West managed to regain control.
