... -two completed studies on adult drug courts showed thirty-seven studies had lower recidivism rates among drug court participants than comparison groups of otherwise similar nonparticipating defendants (Farole et al. 58). Random assignment studies of the Baltimore City Treatment Court and six New York State drug courts also showed reductions in recidivism rates that extended three years after ... judicial supervision. This study found that there is a significantly lower re-arrest and reconviction rates for those adult offenders who have participated in a problem-solving program. Bratton-B...

• Word Count: 4011
• Approx Pages: 16
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... , including crime, is a social product, a result of interactions and patterns of learning that occur in the intimate personal groups and surrounding social circumstances that encapsulate the individual' (Hale et al. 2013: 123). His work showed that different groups of people, teach other people their skills, motivations, and beliefs; this, therefore, coinciding with my previous point earlier on how ... Connell devised a theory of 'hegemonic masculinity' and viewed it as a 'crucial point of intersection of different sources and forms of power, stratification, desire and identit...

• Word Count: 3847
• Approx Pages: 15
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... used that the prevalence of black delinquency exceeded the white delinquency by only 5%. Recent self-reports have found that there is little if any evidence of racial disparity (Hensley et al., 1999, p.1). Hensley et al., (1999) has an explanation why blacks get involved with delinquency. They argue two theories, subculture theory of violence and the self-control theory. Most theories that have ... black-white differentials in juvenile crime tend to focus on economic deprivation, subculture adaptations, self-esteem, intelligence, family structure, and the legacy of racism and discriminati...

• Word Count: 3369
• Approx Pages: 13
• Grade Level: High School

... Loeber, 1986). Whatever way crime is measured, whether through self-reporting or through being officially recorded offending, offenders are generally less intelligent, on average, than non-offenders (Blumstein, et al 1986). However, this evidence has been questioned. Some psychologists suggest that having a low intelligence quotient (IQ) immediately make the risk of association in crime greater, since it reduces ... unemployment. One major longitudinal study has also discovered signs that individuals who are already inclined to being involved in crime, offend more often when finding thems...

• Word Count: 3709
• Approx Pages: 15
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... of the juvenile justice process (official referral, pre-adjudicatory detention, adjudication, and disposition) minority youths are overrepresented relative to their proportion of the youthful population (Dunn et. al, 1993). The researchers stated that in decisions leading to confinement more than 55% of all juveniles detained prior to adjudication were minorities and 60% of all ... of cultural understanding among juvenile justice system staff, and perceived barriers to parental advocacy because of minority parents" often limited understanding of the system all explain overrepresentation ...

• Word Count: 8199
• Approx Pages: 33
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... common and school administrators frequently transferred responsibilities of student discipline to law enforcement, people began to question if such harsh policies were necessary means of violence prevention (Fine et al., 2003). By 1997, 3.1 million students were suspended annually as a result of zero tolerance policies; and in 1998, 87,000 students were expelled under the ... delinquent behavior and additional suspensions. This contradicts the first assumption of deterrence, demonstrating that harsh punishment is not an effective means of preventing re-offense (Skiba et al., 2006). Addit...

• Word Count: 4044
• Approx Pages: 16
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Graduate

... future offending and offenders, through the principles of avoiding punishment. This is based on the assumption that offenders' that fear of punishment will refrain them from criminal behaviour (Davies et al, 2005). However, the ignorance of spontaneous behaviour when crime is committed is a substantial issue of this model. Deterrence does not concern itself with the issue of fairness and ... justice compared with retribution but instead the question of effectiveness (Davies et al, 2005). This raises the question does deterrence work? Does the threat of imprisonment deter potential offen...

• Word Count: 3653
• Approx Pages: 15
• Has Bibliography

... the need to act it out, in order to feel the power, becomes overwhelming. Current studies have found such fantasies to play an important part among serial murderers (Ressler, et al; Prentky. et al.). The need to realize and experience all of the dominance and control that they have fantasized about culminates in the abduction and probable murder of a human being. Motivations for this ... we would have many times more serial killers than we actually do. Among those serial killers studied for research purposes, child neglect was found to be the most common (Ressler, et al., 1988). The Nat...

• Word Count: 5564
• Approx Pages: 22
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... to death, twenty-five were actually executed, sixty-one served more than ten years in jail, and seven died while in prison (Rein et al. 77). These figures raise the question: how many innocent people are on death row right now? Recent studies and new evidence suggest that ... three year study conducted by Columbia University Law Professor James S. Liebman states that "American capital sentences are so persistently and systematically fraught with error" (Liebman et al., par. 2). In "A Broken System: Error Rates in Capital Cases, 1973-1995," Liebman found that the overall rate of prejudici...

• Word Count: 2692
• Approx Pages: 11
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: High School

... Greek physician Hippocrates, who designed a group of typologies and physiques and tried to correlate them with character traits. This work was continued by Sheldon and Stevens (1942) and Sheldon et al (1949) who identified three basic body types; endomorphs, who are fat and soft; ectomorphs, who are thin and fragile and mesomorphs, who are muscular and hard. They suggested ... fact, "sensation seekers" have a more active central nervous system, being more aroused than most people and more arousable. Another possible problem with the theory is that psychologists (McGurk et al, 1981) have...

• Word Count: 2818
• Approx Pages: 11
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... the boot camps, juveniles are found to have positive changes and become less antisocial. Juveniles also appear to perceive their environment more positively than before their boot camp experience (MacKenzie, et al 7). This is not saying that every juvenile to experience a boot camp program will benefit, however just the fact that the boot camp is there and available proves that reformers are ... . However, people who work at the boot camps along with the youth who participate in them have claimed that the camp environment is "conducive to positive growth and changes" (MacKenzie, et al 1)...

• Word Count: 2903
• Approx Pages: 12
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... "objective" and therefore should be responsible for dispelling these myths. Yet the facts are misrepresented, and the news media seems more concerned with entertainment value and with viewer numbers (Gillian et al.2000). The In-Group Concept The human species as social creatures construct classifications for everything, including themselves. The idea of an "in-group," or the majority, against the "out-group ... 8.1 percent. Media portrayal of race-related homicide crimes that present blacks as criminals and whites as the victims are shown as being four times higher than the actual stati...

• Word Count: 2726
• Approx Pages: 11
• Has Bibliography

... design at the initial stages and a lack of understanding of the exact nature of police requirements on the part of the vendor and unreasonable expectations from the police themselves (Openshaw et al, 1991). There is no simple way of automating pin maps through GIS software, and in many cases GIS may be considered an expensive and unnecessary solution. Whereas any clerk can ... and sometimes unnecessary usage of GIS technology. Although "many aspects of policing are inherently geographical and would seem to be able to benefit from the application of GIS technology- (Openshaw et al., 1990...

• Word Count: 4721
• Approx Pages: 19
• Has Bibliography

... 1995c). A study of the rates of victimisation of Indigenous Australians found that Aboriginal women were 10.7 times more likely to be victims of violent crime than non-Aboriginal women (Harding et al. 1995, pp. 20-3). It is likely, therefore, that rates of sexual violence against Indigenous women are disproportionately high, when compared to non-Indigenous women. Sexual Minorities There has been little ... research literature and statistics suggest that the victims' willingness to report offences to the police depends quite heavily on their knowledge of and relationship with the offende...

• Word Count: 3415
• Approx Pages: 14
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... if an individual is unable to comprehend the difference between right and wrong without proper supervision, he/she is most likely to turn out to be a criminal. According to Siegel et al (2008) "Individuals will commit crimes when they believe their actions will go undetected by guardians such as police, security guards, neighbours, teachers, or homeowners. They choose what they consider ... ...

• Word Count: 2830
• Approx Pages: 11
• Has Bibliography

... of school and may be in need of help from adults. Frequently, school mental health professionals and social workers are the main providers of mental health services for children (Stein et al., 2003). Awareness of potentially violent behavior and early intervention are crucial components in helping kids at risk. Equally important is caring for children who have been victims of school violence ... ...

• Word Count: 2600
• Approx Pages: 10
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... the work ethic, which lowers moral values. This perspective has had a great influence on policymaking and has led to what some see as a "negative preoccupation with retribution and punishment" (Taylor P, et al 2000, pg 488) Another reason for crime is due to collapse of sense of community. The solution they say is target handling for example, property marking, security devices and more ... ...

• Word Count: 2617
• Approx Pages: 10
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: High School

... . Death penalty politics. The Nation, vol. 271, no. 4, pp. 6-7, July 24/31, 2000 Kuehl, Sheila. Till death penalty do us part. The Advocate, no. 819, p. 72, August 29, 2000. McClary et al. Race and the death penalty. Souls, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 62-69, Winter 2000 Deats, Richard. On ending the death penalty. Fellowship, vol. 66, no. 5, p. 3, May 2000 Hitchens, Christopher. Bush's death ... ...

• Word Count: 3235
• Approx Pages: 13
• Grade Level: High School

... Baltimore on heroin users. This study found high rates of criminality among users during periods of active drug use and much lower rates during periods of non-drug use (Ball et al. 1983). A large number of people who abuse drugs come into contact with the criminal justice system when they are arrested and subsequently sent to jail or to other correctional facilities ... ...

• Word Count: 2815
• Approx Pages: 11
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... in England and Wales ordered 22,000 violent offenders to pay compensation orders however in 1999 the number for the same area had fallen to less than 10,000 [Maguire et al 2000 pg 1101] Fines: Fines technically can be imposed for any offence, except murder and treason, however are usually used for the more minor offences or in conjunction with other ... ...

• Word Count: 2567
• Approx Pages: 10
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate