The need for intervention was widely recognized in the nations of the global South as well as the North (eg., Ofei-Aboagye 1994). .
During this period, strategies, programs and information circulated globally. One of the most widespread approaches was embodied in the "power and control wheel, " a graphic representation of the theory that violence takes many forms such as intimidation, minimizing the significance of the violence, denying responsibility for the violence, isolating the victim, exercising male privilege, and using emotional forms of abuse (see Pence and Paymar 1983). The wheel was developed by the Domestic Abuse Intervention Project (D.A.I.P) in Duluth, Minnesota in the early 1980s and widely used in batterer's intervention programs such as the one I studied in Hilo and women's support groups. It is used in many places around the world, including New Zealand, Germany, Scotland, Canada, Israel, St. Croix in the Virgin Islands, Fiji, and in the US in such culturally distinct locations as the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation and Marine Corps bases. Information about programs and approaches are widely disseminated through the Internet. For example, in 1999/2000 a virtual working group under the auspices of UNIFEM conducted an email exchange about approaches to violence against women which included 2300 participants in 120 countries.
After two decades of work at the national and local level, in the early 1990s some activists turned to a more global strategy, working through transnational NGOs and UN agencies. In fact, the campaign against violence against women is one of the few successful examples of a transnational collective action network, as women in various parts of the world tried out and adopted similar techniques (see Keck and Sikkink 1998). The emergence of a transnational movement against violence against women was facilitated by an extraordinary series of global conferences on women sponsored by the UN between 1975 and 1995.
