... Loeber, 1986). Whatever way crime is measured, whether through self-reporting or through being officially recorded offending, offenders are generally less intelligent, on average, than non-offenders (Blumstein, et al 1986). However, this evidence has been questioned. Some psychologists suggest that having a low intelligence quotient (IQ) immediately make the risk of association in crime greater, since it reduces ... unemployment. One major longitudinal study has also discovered signs that individuals who are already inclined to being involved in crime, offend more often when finding thems...

• Word Count: 3709
• Approx Pages: 15
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... of the juvenile justice process (official referral, pre-adjudicatory detention, adjudication, and disposition) minority youths are overrepresented relative to their proportion of the youthful population (Dunn et. al, 1993). The researchers stated that in decisions leading to confinement more than 55% of all juveniles detained prior to adjudication were minorities and 60% of all ... of cultural understanding among juvenile justice system staff, and perceived barriers to parental advocacy because of minority parents" often limited understanding of the system all explain overrepresentation ...

• Word Count: 8199
• Approx Pages: 33
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... wave of juvenile violence occur. To be sure, rates of violent juvenile behavior increased in some cities in the 1980s and early 1990s, including Pittsburgh (Loeber, Farrington, Stouthamer-Loeber et al., 2008) and Denver (Huizinga, Weiher, Espiritu, & Esbensen, 2003). However, analyses of national self-report and victimization data showed that the claimed increase in juvenile violence was ... reduce recidivism (Cullen, 2005; Lipsey, 2009; Lipsey & Cullen, 2007), even for serious and violent offenders (Lipsey & Wilson, 1998). A recent study (Mulvey, Steinberg, Piquero et al., 2010) of mor...

• Word Count: 2448
• Approx Pages: 10
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... therefore seen as a valid method of testing the validity and representativeness of the BCS sampling survey. The BCS has been criticised by Genn et al (1987) for missing people living in hostels, bed-sit accommodation and the homeless, who themselves may be some of the highest risk categories ... for the BCS, as it is the cheapest, quickest and most easily quantifiable form of research methodology for such large-scale social surveys. As Sellitz et al (1976) say " questionnaires can be sent through the post, where as interviewers cannot". A questionnaire also produces very quick and quanti...

• Word Count: 1355
• Approx Pages: 5
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... critique of Merton's anomie theory is that it does not consider illegitimate opportunity. In some situations, there is a relative availability of illegal alternatives to various potential criminals (Cloward et. al. 1960, p. 6). Merton's anomie theory does not take into consideration that illegitimate opportunities may be more available in certain areas. Take for instance an urban area engulfed with drugs ... to conventional means is differentially distributed, that some individuals, because of their social class, enjoy certain advantages that are denied to those elsewhere in the class st...

• Word Count: 3988
• Approx Pages: 16
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... rightful owner impersonation, official seals of fake accounts); by documents (e.g. check, "authorization note", power of attorney); and by technology (e.g. on-line computer, FAX machines, ATM access)(Weisburd et al., 1991). Generally, embezzlements committed by staff personnel are more numerous, and the individual amounts taken are fairly small. Embezzlements committed by supervisors and officers are less common, and the amounts ... more "convenient" to allow an embezzler to terminate employment and voluntarily repay the loss than to file a crime report and become involved with the crim...

• Word Count: 1889
• Approx Pages: 8
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... Greek physician Hippocrates, who designed a group of typologies and physiques and tried to correlate them with character traits. This work was continued by Sheldon and Stevens (1942) and Sheldon et al (1949) who identified three basic body types; endomorphs, who are fat and soft; ectomorphs, who are thin and fragile and mesomorphs, who are muscular and hard. They suggested ... fact, "sensation seekers" have a more active central nervous system, being more aroused than most people and more arousable. Another possible problem with the theory is that psychologists (McGurk et al, 1981) have...

• Word Count: 2818
• Approx Pages: 11
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... the boot camps, juveniles are found to have positive changes and become less antisocial. Juveniles also appear to perceive their environment more positively than before their boot camp experience (MacKenzie, et al 7). This is not saying that every juvenile to experience a boot camp program will benefit, however just the fact that the boot camp is there and available proves that reformers are ... . However, people who work at the boot camps along with the youth who participate in them have claimed that the camp environment is "conducive to positive growth and changes" (MacKenzie, et al 1)...

• Word Count: 2903
• Approx Pages: 12
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... on a case-by-case basis, what happened? Why did policy governing the possession of weapons come to mean zero tolerance of a vast area of behaviors including merely watching fights? Schiraldi, et al (2001) maintains that news media coverage plays a major role, particularly since no rise in assault is occurring. As mentioned previously, other researcher's data indicates that gun violence in schools is ... ), and school climate, in which minority and lower class students learn, from a young age that they are not valued through both subtle (lesson plans) and policies that expel students (Joh...

• Word Count: 1612
• Approx Pages: 6
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... , for boxing training participants. The positive benefits of combat sports are also found in Fletcher's (as cited in Nichols, 1992, p. 184) and Palermo et al.'s (2006) studies. In Fletcher's case, emotional control was gained through boxing, while for Palermo et al. (2006), when taught appropriately, martial arts could be effective in reducing problem behavior. Trulson's (1986) study is the most nuanced and perhaps the ... ...

• Word Count: 871
• Approx Pages: 3
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... fear felt by many individuals. Fear of crime serves the interest of a law and order agenda. It is irrelevant at one level whether crime is really increasing or not (Ericson et. al, 1991: 285). If crime is perceived to be out of control, then there is pressure to do something about it. Protests that crime is actually stable or decreasing have little ... therefore, they require less airtime with great impact. The newswire is a vital source of stories that can be re-edited to fulfill the daily requirement of putting out a newspaper (Ericson et. al, 1991: 43). The result therefore is a set ...

• Word Count: 1719
• Approx Pages: 7
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... that there should be a sufficiently low average caseload to provide adequate supervision and to develop variable caseloads for different types of offenders and assignment techniques which will maximize supervision (Albanese et al. 64). The underlying assumption on which probation must rest is that most probationers need supervision and the skill with which it is deployed will in large determine the success of ... the system (Albanese et al. 66). In an article by Elizabeth A. Klug in Corrections Today June 2001, entitled "Debora McGill: Igniting Enthusiasm," Ms. McGill, supervisor of the...

• Word Count: 1772
• Approx Pages: 7
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... ), and found that criminal parents tend to have criminal children. Having a convicted relative in the immediate family predicted that the child would indeed go on to be the convicted (Farrington et al. 1996). For example, 63% of boys with convicted fathers went on to be convicted themselves, compared with 30% of the remainder. We can conclude from these results that it is ... ...

• Word Count: 1881
• Approx Pages: 8
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... , recreation and sport helps assure a situation where antisocial attitudes cannot flourish. Another perpective is that adolescents are drawn or socialized into delinquency as a result of their environment (MacMahon, 1990). Videmsek et al., (2000) found that the sport environment promotes healthy lifestyles, thereby reducing smoking habits among athletes. Thorlindsson (1989) also found that athletes were less likely than non-athletes to drink alcohol ... ...

• Word Count: 1430
• Approx Pages: 6
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... have been reported with adults as both perpetrators and victims. The syndrome is well known to veterinarians. In such cases, a pet's owner fabricates signs and symptoms in the animal (Sigal et al., 1989). MSBP is not uncommon; however its prevalence has not been established. Rosenberg (1987) considered 117 cases in a review. Schreier and Libow (1993) postulated that this syndrome is more common ... ...

• Word Count: 2722
• Approx Pages: 11
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate