... contribute to the effectiveness of this crime prevention strategy. Nevertheless, the role of surveillance technology in public safety management is still not clear (Agustina and Clavell, 2011; McLean et al., 2013). The issue of CCTV's effectiveness was discussed by Agustina and Clavell (2011). According to the researchers, surveillance systems are highly effective in preventing crimes since offenders ... its effectiveness only by implementing additional situational crime prevention measures. Relevant empirical investigation into the effect of public surveillance cameras on crime and diso...

• Word Count: 1968
• Approx Pages: 8
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... -two completed studies on adult drug courts showed thirty-seven studies had lower recidivism rates among drug court participants than comparison groups of otherwise similar nonparticipating defendants (Farole et al. 58). Random assignment studies of the Baltimore City Treatment Court and six New York State drug courts also showed reductions in recidivism rates that extended three years after ... judicial supervision. This study found that there is a significantly lower re-arrest and reconviction rates for those adult offenders who have participated in a problem-solving program. Bratton-B...

• Word Count: 4011
• Approx Pages: 16
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... , including crime, is a social product, a result of interactions and patterns of learning that occur in the intimate personal groups and surrounding social circumstances that encapsulate the individual' (Hale et al. 2013: 123). His work showed that different groups of people, teach other people their skills, motivations, and beliefs; this, therefore, coinciding with my previous point earlier on how ... Connell devised a theory of 'hegemonic masculinity' and viewed it as a 'crucial point of intersection of different sources and forms of power, stratification, desire and identit...

• Word Count: 3847
• Approx Pages: 15
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... Loeber, 1986). Whatever way crime is measured, whether through self-reporting or through being officially recorded offending, offenders are generally less intelligent, on average, than non-offenders (Blumstein, et al 1986). However, this evidence has been questioned. Some psychologists suggest that having a low intelligence quotient (IQ) immediately make the risk of association in crime greater, since it reduces ... unemployment. One major longitudinal study has also discovered signs that individuals who are already inclined to being involved in crime, offend more often when finding thems...

• Word Count: 3709
• Approx Pages: 15
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... of the juvenile justice process (official referral, pre-adjudicatory detention, adjudication, and disposition) minority youths are overrepresented relative to their proportion of the youthful population (Dunn et. al, 1993). The researchers stated that in decisions leading to confinement more than 55% of all juveniles detained prior to adjudication were minorities and 60% of all ... of cultural understanding among juvenile justice system staff, and perceived barriers to parental advocacy because of minority parents" often limited understanding of the system all explain overrepresentation ...

• Word Count: 8199
• Approx Pages: 33
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... noticed that that small percentage still caused approximately 18% of all the violent crimes committed in their sample. In the study by Leon-Carrion et al. (2003), a comparison was made of the school and head injury histories of violent and non-violent prisoners. Difficulties with academics were prevalent in ... found that "what differentiated the violent from the non-violent group was a history of having suffered head injuries that were never treated- (Leon-Carrion et al., 2003, p207). If brain injury is severe enough, and left untreated, the result can be brain damage that is never look...

• Word Count: 2126
• Approx Pages: 9
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... the need to act it out, in order to feel the power, becomes overwhelming. Current studies have found such fantasies to play an important part among serial murderers (Ressler, et al; Prentky. et al.). The need to realize and experience all of the dominance and control that they have fantasized about culminates in the abduction and probable murder of a human being. Motivations for this ... we would have many times more serial killers than we actually do. Among those serial killers studied for research purposes, child neglect was found to be the most common (Ressler, et al., 1988). The Nat...

• Word Count: 5564
• Approx Pages: 22
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... to civil liberties, human rights, opportunities for healthy and fulfilling lives, as well as whether it allocates a fair share of benefits to the least advantaged members of society (Kamalu et. al, 2010). According to Miller, social justice deals with the distribution of good (advantages) and bad (disadvantages) in society, and more specifically with how these things should be distributed ... within society (Kamalu et. al, 2010). It is concerned with the ways resources are allocated to people by social institutions. This therefore means that something is just or unjust depends on whethe...

• Word Count: 1024
• Approx Pages: 4
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... wave of juvenile violence occur. To be sure, rates of violent juvenile behavior increased in some cities in the 1980s and early 1990s, including Pittsburgh (Loeber, Farrington, Stouthamer-Loeber et al., 2008) and Denver (Huizinga, Weiher, Espiritu, & Esbensen, 2003). However, analyses of national self-report and victimization data showed that the claimed increase in juvenile violence was ... reduce recidivism (Cullen, 2005; Lipsey, 2009; Lipsey & Cullen, 2007), even for serious and violent offenders (Lipsey & Wilson, 1998). A recent study (Mulvey, Steinberg, Piquero et al., 2010) of mor...

• Word Count: 2448
• Approx Pages: 10
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... therefore seen as a valid method of testing the validity and representativeness of the BCS sampling survey. The BCS has been criticised by Genn et al (1987) for missing people living in hostels, bed-sit accommodation and the homeless, who themselves may be some of the highest risk categories ... for the BCS, as it is the cheapest, quickest and most easily quantifiable form of research methodology for such large-scale social surveys. As Sellitz et al (1976) say " questionnaires can be sent through the post, where as interviewers cannot". A questionnaire also produces very quick and quanti...

• Word Count: 1355
• Approx Pages: 5
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... which placed Police, Probation as 'responsible Authorities'. CJA 2003 also gave other agencies a 'duty to cooperate' in each of the 43 Police and Probation areas (Wood et al 2007:1) along with bringing the Prison Service into these arrangements. MAPPA set out protocols informing those services that they were to work jointly, sharing expertise, knowledge and confidential information about ... with compulsory treatment (Kemshall, 2010:201). Thus combining punitive and restrictive methods alongside rehabilitation and treatment. The model has, however, been scrutinised for its lack...

• Word Count: 2070
• Approx Pages: 8
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... rightful owner impersonation, official seals of fake accounts); by documents (e.g. check, "authorization note", power of attorney); and by technology (e.g. on-line computer, FAX machines, ATM access)(Weisburd et al., 1991). Generally, embezzlements committed by staff personnel are more numerous, and the individual amounts taken are fairly small. Embezzlements committed by supervisors and officers are less common, and the amounts ... more "convenient" to allow an embezzler to terminate employment and voluntarily repay the loss than to file a crime report and become involved with the crim...

• Word Count: 1889
• Approx Pages: 8
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... Greek physician Hippocrates, who designed a group of typologies and physiques and tried to correlate them with character traits. This work was continued by Sheldon and Stevens (1942) and Sheldon et al (1949) who identified three basic body types; endomorphs, who are fat and soft; ectomorphs, who are thin and fragile and mesomorphs, who are muscular and hard. They suggested ... fact, "sensation seekers" have a more active central nervous system, being more aroused than most people and more arousable. Another possible problem with the theory is that psychologists (McGurk et al, 1981) have...

• Word Count: 2818
• Approx Pages: 11
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... the boot camps, juveniles are found to have positive changes and become less antisocial. Juveniles also appear to perceive their environment more positively than before their boot camp experience (MacKenzie, et al 7). This is not saying that every juvenile to experience a boot camp program will benefit, however just the fact that the boot camp is there and available proves that reformers are ... . However, people who work at the boot camps along with the youth who participate in them have claimed that the camp environment is "conducive to positive growth and changes" (MacKenzie, et al 1)...

• Word Count: 2903
• Approx Pages: 12
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... on a case-by-case basis, what happened? Why did policy governing the possession of weapons come to mean zero tolerance of a vast area of behaviors including merely watching fights? Schiraldi, et al (2001) maintains that news media coverage plays a major role, particularly since no rise in assault is occurring. As mentioned previously, other researcher's data indicates that gun violence in schools is ... ), and school climate, in which minority and lower class students learn, from a young age that they are not valued through both subtle (lesson plans) and policies that expel students (Joh...

• Word Count: 1612
• Approx Pages: 6
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... , for boxing training participants. The positive benefits of combat sports are also found in Fletcher's (as cited in Nichols, 1992, p. 184) and Palermo et al.'s (2006) studies. In Fletcher's case, emotional control was gained through boxing, while for Palermo et al. (2006), when taught appropriately, martial arts could be effective in reducing problem behavior. Trulson's (1986) study is the most nuanced and perhaps the ... ...

• Word Count: 871
• Approx Pages: 3
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... fear felt by many individuals. Fear of crime serves the interest of a law and order agenda. It is irrelevant at one level whether crime is really increasing or not (Ericson et. al, 1991: 285). If crime is perceived to be out of control, then there is pressure to do something about it. Protests that crime is actually stable or decreasing have little ... therefore, they require less airtime with great impact. The newswire is a vital source of stories that can be re-edited to fulfill the daily requirement of putting out a newspaper (Ericson et. al, 1991: 43). The result therefore is a set ...

• Word Count: 1719
• Approx Pages: 7
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... 1995c). A study of the rates of victimisation of Indigenous Australians found that Aboriginal women were 10.7 times more likely to be victims of violent crime than non-Aboriginal women (Harding et al. 1995, pp. 20-3). It is likely, therefore, that rates of sexual violence against Indigenous women are disproportionately high, when compared to non-Indigenous women. Sexual Minorities There has been little ... research literature and statistics suggest that the victims' willingness to report offences to the police depends quite heavily on their knowledge of and relationship with the offende...

• Word Count: 3415
• Approx Pages: 14
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... that there should be a sufficiently low average caseload to provide adequate supervision and to develop variable caseloads for different types of offenders and assignment techniques which will maximize supervision (Albanese et al. 64). The underlying assumption on which probation must rest is that most probationers need supervision and the skill with which it is deployed will in large determine the success of ... the system (Albanese et al. 66). In an article by Elizabeth A. Klug in Corrections Today June 2001, entitled "Debora McGill: Igniting Enthusiasm," Ms. McGill, supervisor of the...

• Word Count: 1772
• Approx Pages: 7
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... Jacob Astor's quest to be the best. Astor arrived form Germany penniless and died the richest man in America; in today's value he was worth seventy-eight billion dollars (Klepper et al. 1998). He was the "first great self made millionaire whose career was made off of the ambitions of young Americans."(Rugoff 1989: 40) The Astor fortune was based on alcohol ... changed the order. The gang leaders emerged on top. During the years of Prohibition, the names of the most notorious bootleggers, mobsters, and gangsters sounded like saints. Names such as Al Capone, Lucky Luciano, Fran Costello, ...

• Word Count: 2135
• Approx Pages: 9
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... cases within Georgia in the McClesky case showed that "the average odds of receiving a death sentence among all indicted cases were 4.3 times higher in cases with white victims." (David C. Baldus et al. 401). The racial aspects involved in the sentencing of death penalty defendants ensures that in our current social landscape, a fair and unbiased trial cannot occur. Also, the results of a death ... ...

• Word Count: 1193
• Approx Pages: 5
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... of school and may be in need of help from adults. Frequently, school mental health professionals and social workers are the main providers of mental health services for children (Stein et al., 2003). Awareness of potentially violent behavior and early intervention are crucial components in helping kids at risk. Equally important is caring for children who have been victims of school violence ... ...

• Word Count: 2600
• Approx Pages: 10
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... ), and found that criminal parents tend to have criminal children. Having a convicted relative in the immediate family predicted that the child would indeed go on to be the convicted (Farrington et al. 1996). For example, 63% of boys with convicted fathers went on to be convicted themselves, compared with 30% of the remainder. We can conclude from these results that it is ... ...

• Word Count: 1881
• Approx Pages: 8
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... Baltimore on heroin users. This study found high rates of criminality among users during periods of active drug use and much lower rates during periods of non-drug use (Ball et al. 1983). A large number of people who abuse drugs come into contact with the criminal justice system when they are arrested and subsequently sent to jail or to other correctional facilities ... ...

• Word Count: 2815
• Approx Pages: 11
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... states with the death penalty, there was strong evidence that the race of the victim influenced juries to impose a sentence of death (Samaha, 2003). This confirms a study done by Baldus, et al. in 1980 which found that defendants convicted of murdering a white person were 4.3 times more likely to receive a death sentence than defendants convicted of murdering an African-American (Bailey, 2003). However ... ...

• Word Count: 2390
• Approx Pages: 10
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate