... its commitment to nonviolent action to achieve social, economic, and political justice and is currently focused on issues such as racial profiling, police brutality, hate crimes, and discrimination. For our online encyclopedia entry, click here. The Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights (ACMHR) was founded in Birmingham, Alabama, on 5 June 1956, after Attorney General John Patterson of Alabama outlawed ... to protest segregation in Birmingham. ACMHR and SCLC sought to desegregate public facilities and attain equal employment opportunities for Birmingham's black citizens by targetin...

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... all across the country. Maybe it should have never passed by the Supreme Court at all. Betts vs. Brady should have never been overturned and should have remained the common practice throughout the country. The Supreme Court overlooked many important factors in deciding Gideon vs. Wainwright. This case should have been just another case decided by the standard that Betts vs ... to provide, along with a lawyer, a private investigator, a psychiatrist, and bail payment. Other more sophisticated things would also have to be provided to criminals who were short on funds. Blood tests and DNA t...

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... implements, counterfeiters' tools, burglars' tools, smuggled goods, obscene literature, narcotics, illegal firearms and any article the possession of which is a crime or which may be used in evidence. (Encarta Online) The warrant must specify the place where the search is to be made and the property to be seized. An officer cannot get a warrant from a judge in any circumstance. (Grolier ... to have a search warrant before using wiretapping. This applies to any and all people. (Katz v. U.S.) Along with the first eight amendments, the 4th Amendment deals with personal freedom. (Encarta On...

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... by randomly testing students in their schools. The majority of the drug testing going on around the nation involves students that take part in sports and other extracurricular activities. This practice exhibits a complete lack of fairness and trust towards young athletes. Drug use obviously does go on with high school students, but singling out athletes for a random drug test is not ... 23 million high schools and middle schools to receive a drug test before joining an extracurricular activity. This comes just seven years after schools were granted permission to take random urinalysis t...

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... validity. Although many standardized test producers report high reliability coefficients, they rarely report test reliability over time. M. Neil and N.J. Medina noted that consumers should be cautious even when intelligence tests have high reliability coefficients because, as they stated in their article in Phi Delta Kappan, entitled "Standardized testing: Harmful to educational health". For an I.Q. test with a reliability coefficient ... though that student's "true score" could well be 130. (690) Thus, standardized testing has only compounded the problems involved in educating minoritie...

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... but testing only for recreational drugs, and at a very high cost, makes many disbelievers of the system. What exactly is the point of these tests? High school sports have become very competitive among many schools. It is often more than just a game, and athletes find themselves training in some ... Many supporters say that there objective is to "level the playing field." This is an understandable explanation, however the idea becomes ridiculous because the tests only screen for recreational drugs (marijuana, cocaine, amphetamines, etc.)and not steroids, or those that increase an athletes ...

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... concern for many companies in the recent years. More companies are beginning to use it and more people are starting more to have problems with it. The tests are now more than ever seen as a way to stop the problems of drug abuse in the workplace. This brings up a very large question. ... For example a polygraph has been known to make mistakes so this cannot be the sole source of information. The procedure in which the tests are taken is a major concern. This decision went all the way to the Supreme Court. Samuel K. Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives Association found that urine ... ris...

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... up is to be a part of the ever growing internet community. You can do anything from chat with friends to research a history project to buy airline tickets online. At the moment, the Internet is the perfect example of our first amendment, free speech. It is a place where a person can speak their mind without being ... she can look at such sites without mom or dad one finding out. The second is to put time restrictions on when a child can get online. If a child can only get online during a time when at least one parent is home then the child will be less likely to look at something he is n...

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... to establish a law that would be able to spy on every single American whichever mean of communication he wanted. This meant telephone calls, email messages, SMS, social media profiles, conversations online, etc. This spying was under secret for four years, only known by Congress, the Executive Branch, and the New York Times. According to the NSA, the President was breaking the ... of grievances." It is clear, when the NYPD was set to servile Muslims, they were many college students complaining about feeling uncomfortable of not even having the opportunity to practice their religion in a...

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... when deciding on an appropriate sentence following conviction and admitted in civil cases. The Fourth Amendment can also be read as allowing searches and seizures that are considered reasonable. In practice, this means that the police may override your privacy concerns and conduct a search of your home, car, business etc., if the police have probable cause to believe they can find ... has taken a serious thrashing from judges and politicians in recent years, as it continually remains a highly debated subject. The U.S. Supreme Court has approved roadblocks detaining law-abiding drivers, ...

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... March 11, 1936 in Trenton, NJ. He studied at Georgetown University, University of Fribourg (Switzerland) and Harvard Law School. After graduation he was a Sheldon fellow at Harvard before entering private practice with Jones, Day, Cockley, and Reavis in Cleveland. In 1967, he rejoined academic life as a professor at the University of Virginia. From 1971 to 1977 Scalia served in various government ... jurisprudence. He favors judicial restraint in that he examine issues based on the specific facts at hand and defers to lower courts and state legislatures when appropriate. He avoids brigh...

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... right as a citizens because of the13th and 14th amendments ( 1856 and 1868), but hatred and inequality could not be ratified as the constitution was. More laws were being made to practice the saying "we all equal under the eyes of the law". Yet, not one of laws were actually being followed, even in the supreme court. According to document F, racial profiling ... in public places and by employers, unions, and voting registrars. In 1965, Congress yet again passed another voting rights bill. The bill suspended use of literacy or other voter-qualification tests that had sometimes served to ...

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... . Probably the biggest battle yet over the first amendment rights so far has been the Communications Decency Act or CDA. In March 1995 Senator Jim Exon introduces legislation to criminalize online publication of any material deemed "obscene, lascivious, filthy or indecent." This legislation was attached to a larger and popular Telecommunications Reform Bill. The Senate and the House voted to approve the ... too vague. With that loss, proponents of the CDA have vowed to bring new legislation. Another Bill that Was introduced into legislation is the Child Online Protection Act or COPA. In ...

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... . Probably the biggest battle yet over the first amendment rights so far has been the Communications Decency Act or CDA. In March 1995 Senator Jim Exon introduces legislation to criminalize online publication of any material deemed "obscene, lascivious, filthy or indecent." This legislation was attached to a larger and popular Telecommunications Reform Bill. The Senate and the House voted to approve the ... too vague. With that loss, proponents of the CDA have vowed to bring new legislation. Another Bill that was introduced into legislation is the Child Online Protection Act or COPA. In ...

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... recently took place at the White House about this subject. Several industry leaders and the government agreed to try to originate a variety of systems to block and regulate controversial online speech. Despite the Supreme Court these leaders are inching toward the dangerous and incorrect understanding that the Internet is like television and should be rated and/or censored. During this ... meeting many announcements took place. Netscape, a major online server, proclaimed their plans to join Microsoft, a major computer company, and adopt the Platform for Internet Content Selection (PICS)...

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... to play football. The Vernonia School District has a policy that all students on a sports team must participate in a random drug testing. These tests would be taken at random to 10% of the team every week. Before these drug tests could be done, the student and the student's family had to sign a consent form that okayed the drug testing. When James brought this ... that students who voluntarily participate in school activities have reason to expect intrusions upon normal rights and privileges, including privacy. The court also saw that since the results of the tests were disclosed only t...

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... their citizens. Some state governments passed laws that made it almost impossible for black males to exercise their newly-won right. Some of the laws enacted were poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses. Poll taxes required citizens to pay a tax before they could vote. Since most former slaves were very poor, they were unable to pay the tax. In a number ... of the states, poor white men were allowed to vote even when they could not pay the poll tax. There were also literacy tests, which required men to take tests to prove that they could read and write before they were allow...

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... of measures for restricting the rights of former slaves. These codes prevented African Americans from carry firearms, starting business, appearing on the streets after sunset, traveling without a permit, etc. Literacy tests required voters to take and pass a test in order to be able to vote. Most freedmen did not know how to write and read and therefore could not pass the ... tests. Poll taxes made every voter pay so that he/she could vote. Most freedmen were poor and therefore did not have any money to give for voting. The "grandfather clause" ... whose grandfather had voted before 1...

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... getting away with murder. Nearly 430 000 Americans die each year from smoking related diseases. An estimated 730 000 adolescent smokers will begin each year. (American Lung Association Fact Sheet. Online 1999) That should be an outrage to every American out there. Tobacco laws need to be stricter in this country and advertising of the product should be banned. Two major ... and sales. There needs to be more tougher penalties and fines for people who sell to minors or buy for minors. In another study done by the American Lung Association (Online, 1999) it says Thirty percent of teens tha...

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Constitution's Significance and Law in America The definition of constitution is the act or process of composing, setting up or establishing (Websters Dictionary online). When I think of constitution I think of our "founding father's", the ones who established our governemnt and function. I am reminded of why they came over here. I think of the Constitution as ... sick, and have extreme moral contradictions with it. As Im sure so did our Supreme Court justices. The Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996 made it a federal crime to post online computer-generated child pornography. Now as hor...

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... is the essence of the Bill of Rights which clearly makes it a guaranteed right. Internet users sometimes do not realize the amount of privacy that is lost when accessing the online world. While much of this information has been freely available in the past, the start of the internet has made it available more easily and quickly. But sadly, in many ... a way that it could cause damage to your career or very important stepping stones in your life. If the boss of a new job that you have privously applied for goes online to find out such personal information about you, they may decide that ...

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... rulebook for other golfers. He also said the PGA will use the language in the decision to create a "framework" for handling future requests for rule exemptions from disabled golfers (CNN Online News Article. U.S. Supreme Court hears arguments in disabled golfer case ). PGA Commissioner Tim Finchem spoke in his State of the Tour Message: "This is an issue first and foremost about ... , PGA of America, not just the PGA TOUR, but those are the individuals in their own areas that should be the final determinator of the rules of the game." (CNN Online News Article. U.S. Supreme Court hears ar...

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... White wealth an acceptable norm. After the United States Congress passed the Civil Rights Act in 1964, it became apparent that certain business traditions, such as seniority status and aptitude tests, prevented total equality in employment. However, on September 24, 1965, Lyndon B. Johnson issued Executive Order #11246 at Howard University that required federal contractors "to take Affirmative Action to ensure that ... , arguing that their "test scores showed they were not qualified for better positions (130)." The court rejected this explanation, "ruling that employers who hired and pro...

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"Constitutional Classification Tests" In the United States the Supreme Court, with its power of judicial review, may determine whether an act by the President, Congress, a national, state, or local administrative official, a state legislature, a ... the national government, reserves others to the states, and protects individuals from governmental invasion of their freedoms of religion, speech, press, and other rights. Likewise, The Court uses three separate tests "the rational basis test, the strict scrutiny test, and the heightened scrutiny test "to determine whether a classification is con...

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... going to change. We need to be realistic, in Thernstrom's own words, "When we lower the standards for African-Americans to get in, we're perpetuating the worst stereotypes." Standardized tests are made for everyone, so how can they be unfair to one gender or race? In 1989 for example, colleges accepted 60 percent of African-American students who scored 1200 ... to 1249 on their SAT, as opposed to 12 percent of white students with equal scores. This proves that statistics are still being used as a "quota." These standardized tests, being an open competitive system, are the best protector...

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