... males. Extended research that supports these hypotheses also suggests that butch lesbians may be physiologically similar to heterosexual men due to prenatal androgen exposure (Bassett et al. 2001; Brown et al. 2002; Pearce et al. 1996; Singh et al. 1999). Brown and colleagues (2002) support these suggestions with their finding of finger length differences in butch and femme lesbians in which butch ... sexual desire, unrestricted sociosexual desire is accompanied in conjunction with a sexual attraction that is particularly directed at prospective mates to whom no steadfast romantic relat...

• Word Count: 1702
• Approx Pages: 7
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... , including crime, is a social product, a result of interactions and patterns of learning that occur in the intimate personal groups and surrounding social circumstances that encapsulate the individual' (Hale et al. 2013: 123). His work showed that different groups of people, teach other people their skills, motivations, and beliefs; this, therefore, coinciding with my previous point earlier on how ... Connell devised a theory of 'hegemonic masculinity' and viewed it as a 'crucial point of intersection of different sources and forms of power, stratification, desire and identit...

• Word Count: 3847
• Approx Pages: 15
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... has benefited with perceptual understanding. Increasing progressive activity towards social equality. When we are involved in making our community better we give ourselves a sense of purpose. Barnlund and Bellah et al. present a common interest of communicative involvement and societal progress. Present day compromise is benefited from considerate communication between global societies. These acts of understanding and working together enhances global linking ... understand his point of view. He wants to relate to every gender not just his own, and to justify from a male perspective the re...

• Word Count: 1394
• Approx Pages: 6
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... hormone levels, internal genitalia, external genitalia, and brains that don't all line up in terms of being male-typical or female-typical (Frederick, et al. 2008). They later go on to describe how this has now sparked controversial debates over what the definition of an intersexual person is, and ... amount of gender appearance rigidity in early childhood and kids learn at an early age what is social appropriate for their respective gender (Halim, et al. 2014). Surprisingly, parental preference did not seem to have much of an effect on any of the examined children's appearance rigidity ...

• Word Count: 1224
• Approx Pages: 5
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... solving abilities, and yet our species has still been developed greatly on our natural and sexual instincts. Sexual dimorphism: the difference between males and females in the same species, (Samal et al., 2007) is a great way to acknowledge these instincts. Sexual Dimorphism is evident in a large number of animal species, including humans. In humans, men are generally taller and more muscular ... has been found that women also prefer more feminine faces in their potential mating partners, and again this is because a more feminine face represents youth and therefore reproductive success...

• Word Count: 1391
• Approx Pages: 6
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... to rate their respective managers in terms of three different leadership styles: (1) task-oriented leadership; (2) people-oriented leadership; and (3) transformational leadership. In their results, Van Engen et al. (2001) found no gender difference in the predicted leadership styles. In other words, shop assistants consistently rated their male and female managers to be similar in their leadership styles ... less task-oriented when leading in a feminine-type context, and less people-oriented, less transformational, and more task-oriented when leading in masculine-typed contexts" (Van Eng...

• Word Count: 2707
• Approx Pages: 11
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... , 1999; Martin & Pritchard, 1991). However, there exists some gender differences amongst Caucasians. Two studies determined slightly more females than male whites smoked (Andrine et al, 1994; Ralston, 1998), while two others determined white girls were more concerned about taking risks such as smoking than their male counterparts (DeFronzo & Pawlak, ... likely to quit (Yarnold, 1999). White youths were more likely to smoke if there is no father in the house (DeFronzo & Pawlak, 1994; Grade et al, 1996; Yarnold, 1999), and the same is true for black males (Andrine, 1994). However, if the fa...

• Word Count: 905
• Approx Pages: 4
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... within society itself. According to Hepburn, Critical Psychology challenges this notion offering disapproval of how issues are held in society as well as in Psychology (as cited by Tyson et al., 2011). In Western cultures, gender is universally perceived as a meaningful pragmatic variable which is essential in understanding the human behaviour and nature. Gender has become an ordinary concept ... be. The feminist movement criticizes also mainstream Psychology because it studies differences between males and females and some feminists claim that Psychology should not study these differen...

• Word Count: 3244
• Approx Pages: 13
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... by men probably remains the quintessential form of this kind of dominance behavior, it could also take place between men" (Morgan, 196). Morgan's point is well illustrated by Holland et al.'s discussion of the promotion of hegemonic heterosexual masculinity, although their male interviewees" experiences are not presented as sexual harassment but as peer pressure and ridicule. Drawing from data produced ... in the Men, Risk and AIDS project, Holland et al. observe that the dominant cultural ideal of heterosexual masculinity in the western culture produces some men as virile, romantic, suc...

• Word Count: 1317
• Approx Pages: 5
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... suit the personality of the brand, while this personality must match that of the reader. If it is so the particular advert will successfully communicate with the ideal audience. Aaker et al point out the necessity to associate feelings with the brand in advertising. The process will be that of setting a mood that will affect the reader, that will stay imprited the ... sexiness or their desirability. The feeling generated by sense appealing communication in ads, is the proof that there is an " emotional bonding" between brand and potential brand user. Indeed Aaker et al believe that this...

• Word Count: 1975
• Approx Pages: 8
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... the main features of this doctrine. Monetary benefits and costs shape individuals' agency, individuals who are believed to all have equal opportunities but positive inequality of outcomes (Greig et al., 2007). Today, the understanding of a global world is framed principally as an economically driven process which aims to prosperity, liberty, democracy and peace for all (Scholte, ... they placed new technologies under the control of men, with the consequence that women became less important, received a reduced status, had less power and had a lower income (Greig et al., 2007). Yet, accord...

• Word Count: 2203
• Approx Pages: 9
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... but men`s intelligence is linked to their gray matter (responsible for information processing). Higher testosterone levels in men have also been linked to sex differences in spatial intelligence. Hooven, et.al found that higher testosterone levels in males led to lower error rates and faster response to mental rotation tasks. This may explain to some extent why men score higher than ... apos;girly' or 'boyish' (Halpern & LaMay, 1999). Some other factors that are thought to have an effect on spatial skills are technology and socioeconomic status. According to Levine, et.al. (2005) chi...

• Word Count: 1790
• Approx Pages: 7
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... and shape of the external features remained the same in both genders. In the oldest developmental group, the sexual differentiation advanced toward maturity. In this same study, Cunha et al. treated pregnant spotted hyenas with anti-androgens, in order to discern if placental androgen levels contributed to the masculinization of the genitalia. Their results showed that the fetuses of ... females have higher levels of androstenedione. Moreover, testosterone and androstenedione are positively correlated between age groups [6]. Because these androgens have been concluded to come from the fe...

• Word Count: 1647
• Approx Pages: 7
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... , moving, marriage. Thus, it is certainly clear that women spend more time without jobs caring for children than men. Then why does a past job interruption damage women's current income? Phipps et al. stated that it is "possible that during a long absence from paid employment women not only fail to acquire human capital, but their existing human capital may actually deteriorate" (2001:420 ... , or, women not returning to the same employer may have to accept lower wages than they received prior to their withdrawal. An explanation stated by Albrecht et al. can supplement Drolet's idea more....

• Word Count: 1514
• Approx Pages: 6
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... more often than females. In fact in Graham's study males were referred to seven times as often as females (Graham 1973 in Thorne et al 1983). It is not far-fetched at all to suppose that part of the reason for this phenomenon is the prominence of the male ... ", "Businessman" from "business" etc.). Once again this is a very obvious objection but the repercussions are larger than one would think. Silveira (1980 in Thorne et al 1983) found in a series of studies that while women tended to interpret gender-biased "generic" pronouns as generic men tended to interpret them as meaning "male" ...

• Word Count: 2723
• Approx Pages: 11
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... . The bases of this come from the father's own sense of gender identity and that this influence encourages young males to conduct themselves in a certain manner (cited in Van Krieken et al, 2013). When looking at the sports most commonly played by males, rugby union, soccer and rugby league where very common (see figure 4). These sports are associated with being rough and ... to Connell's hegemonic masculinities can be made as she suggest the dominant masculinity is one that displays the key stereotypical gender schemas associated with being a male (cited in Van Krieken et al, 2013). As ...

• Word Count: 2543
• Approx Pages: 10
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... . This tells us that most participants see gender stereotypes as negative. From an early age, we are routinely taught not to stereotype; reinforcing a negative association with the practice. As Czopp et al tell us in their study on positive stereotypes: 'This anti-stereotyping message is reinforced throughout all levels of education and occupational institutions and has fostered an intolerance of intolerance ... ' (Czopp, Kay, & Cheryan, 2015). Whilst the above statement supports this study's findings that education is challenging stereotypes, the Czopp et al study also points to the...

• Word Count: 2714
• Approx Pages: 11
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... depressed about how they look. Members of the APA task force say, "Sexualization of girls has negative consequences on girls' ability to develop a healthy sexual self-image" (Zurbriggen et al.). Another reason for depression is that girls are being sexualized in advertisements such as clothing commercials and beauty advertisements. These advertisements can put a lot of pressure on young girls at ... the world are facing similar situations mostly in developed countries. One journal mentions that "media-idealized images have the most harmful and substantial impact on vulnerable individual...

• Word Count: 1245
• Approx Pages: 5
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... . These sexually explicit ads, employed for a myriad of products, negatively portray women solely in terms of one narrow and stereotypically presented aspect of their gender roles: as sexual objects (Treise et al. 1994 pg.61) These advertisements use objectification to suggest that men buy the product to help them attract the women they represent in their advertisement. This is often achieved non ... can lead to moral deterioration of the society. (2012 pg.33) This deterioration in society is not the direct fault of the media however it is influenced by it. Treise (et al) explains how, "...

• Word Count: 1800
• Approx Pages: 7
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... and an increase in symptoms of depression and suicidal ideation. "The college environment is generally not the ideal environment to promote good sleep and good sleep habits" (Taylor et al., 2006). Although almost all of the studies were gender biased the same results were consistent throughout. "Poor sleep is implicated in the onset of adverse mental health outcomes" ... to other common mental health disorders that may be commonly screened for at student health centers, sleep is an important aspect of health that should be regularly assessed" (Taylor et al., 2006)....

• Word Count: 1934
• Approx Pages: 8
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... maturity, we have our first insight into our sexuality, an insight which is genetically programmed into our consciousness through our DNA, this theory is supported by the work of hamer et al ( 1993) who conducted a study of male sexual orientation. "Hamer examined 40 pairs of gay brothers. He examined 22 genetic markers distributed across the X chromosome in order to see if brothers ... , put simply, means that our sexuality is not the result of our biology (nature) but rather that our sexuality and characteristics are socially learned through experience. A study by Albert Bandura et al ...

• Word Count: 1993
• Approx Pages: 8
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... reason. Relevance of our evolutionary history, genetic differences, and more specific indicators of our human physiology all come into play when discussing human behavior patterns and gendered behavior issues. Freese et. Al believe that the relevance of biology is critical in understanding our human activities; by simply considering humans as an evolved species who rely on natural selection, sociologists can better understand ... the biological explanations behind our behaviors. According to Freese et. Al, "Many critics believe that evolutionary psychology exaggerates the breadth, magni...

• Word Count: 2074
• Approx Pages: 8
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... despite the fact that teachers of younger children are still predominantly female, most higher positions in schools remain to be male. This imbalance continues throughout secondary and higher education. (Arnot et al. 1996) This research emphasized the fact that boys were achieving far more in terms of academic performance than the girls, which informed educators, the government and policy makers that the ... hand, now girls are academically outperforming boys it is blamed on boys" lacking motivation due to social conditions and the theory; boys could do better if they wanted to. (Weiner...

• Word Count: 1938
• Approx Pages: 8
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... explicitly criticises the emphasis on the family as the unit in charge (Sarup, 1993). In order to carry out its functions, the family relies on differential relationships (Broderick, 1993). Coole et al (1990) point out that the functional needs by the nuclear element of the nuclear family are neither exclusive nor universal which indicates that differentiation it is not essential to the ... differential relationship that identify the roles of wife or mother are part of the nuclear family model promoted by patriarchal ideologies for more than one hundred and fifty years (Coole et al, 199...

• Word Count: 2399
• Approx Pages: 10
• Grade Level: Undergraduate

... , a group, or an individual deems important. Ideologies usually go unquestioned as they are generally thought of as "any knowledge that is posed as natural or generally applicable" (O,Sullivan et al, 1994, p.140). How a society functions ideologically varies, as they are affected and determined by the culture of the particular group. Hegemony is concerned with the ways in which consent is ... ...

• Word Count: 691
• Approx Pages: 3
• Has Bibliography
• Grade Level: Undergraduate